Cancer biology and pathology

The vast majority of human cancers begin are clonal in their origin, meaning that they began from genetic mutations within a single population of precursor or cancer stem cells. However, with subsequent cell divisions, the tumor develops heterogeneity and therefore further abnormalities. The genes most commonly affected and subsequently cancer inducing, control the cell cycle checkpoint, DNA repair, DNA damage repair recognition, apoptosis, differentiation and cell signaling.

Taking apoptosis as an example, normal cells generally die by an active and strictly regulated process known as programmed cell death, disturbances in the balances of proteins that control this cycle can cause cancer. Additionally, tumor cells are often not recognized and destroyed by the immune system either because the tumor does not express molecules that induce cytotoxic T-lymphocytes or because the tumor actively secretes immunosuppression cytokines. Cancers can spread by both local invasion and distant metastases by infiltrating the blood vessels and lymphatic systems.

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